60 Words

This Radiolab episode, produced in collaboration with BuzzFeed reporter Gregory Johnson, examines the 60-word sentence that has defined American military policy since September 11, 2001. The story begins three days after 9/11 when White House lawyer Timothy Flanagan was tasked with drafting an Authorization for Use of Military Force. Using the 1991 Gulf War AUMF as a template, Flanagan created a brief document authorizing the president to use "all necessary and appropriate force" against those who "planned, authorized, committed, or aided" the September 11 attacks, or "harbored such organizations or persons."

Congresswoman Barbara Lee emerges as a critical figure in the narrative. Despite pressure to vote yes for national unity, she was the sole vote against the authorization in both chambers of Congress. Her concerns centered on the vagueness of terms like "all necessary and appropriate force," which she rightly worried could be interpreted broadly. Her opposition was informed by historical precedent: the 1964 Gulf of Tonkin Resolution, which used similarly broad language and became the legal justification for massive escalation in Vietnam.

The episode then traces how these 60 words have been reinterpreted over time. The phrase "associated forces"—which appears nowhere in the original text—has become central to the AUMF's application. What began as a narrow authorization targeting al-Qaeda and the Taliban has expanded to justify military operations against groups with tenuous connections to the original terrorist organization. The phrase "all necessary and appropriate force" has been interpreted to include detention (Guantanamo Bay), drone strikes, and secret renditions.

Through interviews with lawyers like John Bellinger (former National Security Council legal advisor) and Harold Koh (State Department legal advisor), the episode reveals how decisions about who lives and dies are made in classified "SIVET" (Secure Video Teleconference) meetings involving hundreds of government officials and lawyers. These meetings involve discussions of targets using coded city names, with lawyers ultimately determining legality based on shifting criteria about seniority, external orientation, and group affiliation.

The episode highlights a critical example: the case of Sheikh Mukhtar Robo from al-Shabaab. When the Pentagon wanted to target him, Harold Koh drew a hard line, arguing that Robo wasn't externally focused and therefore not covered by the AUMF. This objection from the State Department's top lawyer blocked the operation, illustrating that dissenting voices can occasionally prevent strikes, though such instances appear rare.

President Obama's 2013 speech attempting to end the war proved largely symbolic. Rather than repealing the AUMF, his administration extended it to justify fighting ISIS, arguing ISIS was a successor to al-Qaeda despite al-Qaeda's public rejection of the group. The episode concludes by noting that as of the update in 2025, the original AUMF remains fully intact and unchanged, even after the 2021 Afghanistan withdrawal. Barbara Lee, now Oakland's mayor, continues efforts to repeal the authorization, but multiple repeal bills remain pending in Congress.